Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers which are designed to be held in place close to a user's ears. Headphones have wires which allow them to be connected to a signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD player, or portable media player. They are also known as stereophones or, colloquially, cans. The in-ear versions are known as earphonesor earbuds. In the context of telecommunication, the term headset is used to describe a combination of headphone and microphone.
The very first headphones were comprised of handmade materials that were readily available such as rubber, leather, copper, and ceramics. Headphones in more modern times still are made based on the same principles but highly advanced. Headphones are now mass-produced and made with a wide spectrum of different materials including vinyl, foam, silicone, advanced plastics, artificial leather, textiles and more.
Ever since headphones were invented by Nathaniel Baldwin in 1910, they have undergone a radical evolution in style, design and performance. Early headphones were largely handmade and constructed from materials common to electrical products of the era---mainly copper, rubber, leather and technical ceramics. Modern headphones are generally highly engineered, mass-produced and made with sophisticated plastics, silicone, artificial leather, rubber, textiles, vinyl and foam materials.
Friday, June 8, 2012
HOW BREAD IS MADE
Bread is a staple food prepared by cooking a dough of flour and water and often additional ingredients. Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g.,mantou), fried (e.g., puri), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas). It may beleavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo). Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast andbaking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such asmilk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit (such as raisins), vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such aswalnuts) or seeds (such as poppy). Referred to colloquially as the "staff of life", bread has been prepared for at least 30,000 years. The development of leavened bread can probably also be traced to prehistoric times. Sometimes, the word bread refers to a sweetened loaf cake, often containing appealing ingredients like dried fruit, chocolate chips, nuts or spices, such as pumpkin bread, banana bread or gingerbread.
Fresh bread is prized for its taste, aroma, quality, appearance and texture. Retaining its freshness is important to keep it appetizing. Bread that has stiffened or dried past its prime is said to be stale. Modern bread is sometimes wrapped in paper or plastic film or stored in a container such as a breadbox to reduce drying. Bread that is kept in warm, moist environments is prone to the growth of mold. Bread kept at low temperatures, in a refrigeratorfor example, will develop mold growth more slowly than bread kept at room temperature, but will turn stale quickly due to retrogradation.
The soft, inner part of bread is known to bakers and other culinary professionals as thecrumb, which is not to be confused with small bits of bread that often fall off, called crumbs. The outer hard portion of bread is called the crust.
Thursday, June 7, 2012
HOW CHEWING GUM IS MADE
Chewing gum is a type of gum made of chicle, a natural latex product, or synthetic rubberknown as polyisobutylene. For economical and quality reasons, many modern chewing gums use rubber instead of chicle. Chicle is nonetheless still the base of choice for some regional markets, such as Japan.
How is chewing gum made?
All recipes for chewing gum manufactured today share the same main ingredients: a gum base, sweeteners, primarily sugar and corn syrup, and flavorings. Some also contain softeners, such as glycerin and vegetable oil. The amount of each added to the mix varies as to which type of gum is being manufactured. For example, bubble gum contains more of the gum base, so that your bubbles don't burst…especially during class! Though gum manufacturers carefully guard their recipes, they all share the same basic process to reach the finished product. Preparation of the gum base at the factory, by far the lengthiest step, requires that the raw gum materials be melted down in sterilized in a steam cooker, and then pumped to a high-powered centrifuge to rid the gum base of undesirable dirt and bark. Once the factory workers clean the melted gum base, they combine approximately 20% of the base with 63% sugar, 16% corn syrup, and 1% flavoring oils, such as spearmint, peppermint, and cinnamon. While still warm, they run the mixture between pairs of rollers, which are coated on both sides with powdered sugar, to prevent the resulting ribbon of gum from sticking. The final pair of rollers comes fully equipped with knives, which snip the ribbon into sticks, which yet another machine individually wraps. The gum base used in these recipes is, for the most part, manufactured, due to economic constraints. In the good old days, the entire gum base came directly from the milky white sap, or chicle, of the sapodilla tree found in Mexico and in Guatemala. There, natives collect the chicle by the bucketful, boil it down, mold it into 25-pound blocks, and ship it directly to chewing gum factories. Those with little or no self-restraint, chew their chicle directly from the tree, as did New England settlers, after watching Indians do the same. The concept of chewing gum stuck, and continues to play a vital role in our economy, largely due to the many benefits associated with its use. Sales of chewing gum first began in the early 1800s. Later, in the 1860s, chicle was imported as a substitute for rubber, and finally, in approximately the 1890s, for use in chewing gum. The pure pleasure derived from enraging a schoolteacher by blowing bubbles in class, or from annoying a co-worker by snapping it, is only one of the attractions of chewing gum. Chewing gum actually helps to clean the teeth, and to moisturize the mouth, by stimulating saliva production, which helps to neutralize tooth-decay-forming acids left behind after eating fermented food. The muscular action of chewing gum also helps to curb a person's appetite for a snack or for a cigarette, to concentrate, to stay alert, to ease tension, and to relax one's nerves and muscles. For these very reasons, the armed forces supplied soldiers with chewing gum in World War I, World War II, in Korea, and in Vietnam. Today, chewing gum is still included in field and combat rations. In fact, the Wrigley Company, following the Department of Defense specifications supplied to government contractors, supplied chewing gum for the distribution to troops stationed in Saudi Arabia during the Persian Gulf War. It is safe to say that chewing gum has served our country well.
Wednesday, June 6, 2012
HOW PINBALL MACHINE WORKS
Pinball is a type of arcade game, usually coin-operated, in which points are scored by a player manipulating one or more steel balls on a play field inside a glass-covered cabinet called a pinball machine. The primary objective of the game is to score as many points as possible. Points are earned when the ball strikes different targets on the play field. A drain is situated at the bottom of the play field protected by player-controlled plastic bats, called flippers. A game ends after all the balls fall into the drain. Secondary objectives are to maximize the time spent playing (by earning "extra balls" and keeping the ball in play as long as possible) and to earn free games (known as "replays").
MIRRORS
A mirror is an object that reflects light or sound in a way that preserves much of its original quality prior to its contact with the mirror. Some mirrors also filter out some wavelengths, while preserving other wavelengths in the reflection.
This is different from other light-reflecting objects that do not preserve much of the original wave signal other than color and diffuse reflected light. The most familiar type of mirror is the plane mirror, which has a flat surface. Curved mirrors are also used, to produce magnified or diminished images or focus light or simply distort the reflected image.Mirrors are commonly used for personal grooming or admiring oneself (in which case the archaic term looking-glass is sometimes still used), decoration, and architecture. Mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus such as telescopes and lasers, cameras, and industrial machinery. Most mirrors are designed for visible light; however, mirrors designed for other types of waves or other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are also used, especially in non-optical instruments.
HOW AIRPLANE RECYCLING IS DONE
SOME PICTURES OF AIRPLANE RECYCLED PARTS USED:
Everything wears out sooner or later and aircraftare no exception. What becomes of these winged wonders once their airborne adventures have ended? Some are merely abandoned; transforming from “I soar” to eyesore. Others take on new life through recycling. Here are 15 well-grounded examples.
Some parts of disused airplanes are costly and/or difficult to recycle, especially the cylindrical fuselages. Design firm LOT-EK has proposed using more than 200 fuselage sections from old Boeing 727 and 737 jets to build the startlingly beautiful New Jalisco Library in the Mexican city of Guadalajara, front view shown above.
Mass-produced over several decades, decommissioned 727 and 737 jets lie scattered across the American west in sprawling “parks”, so recycling several hundred fuselages would help put a dent in the stockpile.
Designed to withstand extremes of temperature and pressure over years of use, retired aircraft have been used to create some veryoffbeat homes. Such is the case with Jo Ann Ussery’s jetliner home, formerly a Continental Airlines 727. Ussery paid just $2,000 for the scrapped jet though subsequent expenses were 14 times that amount. The unique home features a Jacuzzi in the master bathroom and one of the original lavatories soldiers on in its original function.
Above are some interior photos of Jo Ann Ussery’s far-from-planehome, which she graced with the name “Little Trump”. The rooms seem bright and… is that wood paneling on the living room wall?
With so many decommissioned jets just lying around, it just makes sense to put them to use and a company named Max Power is doing exactly that. The Tennessee company offers “Airplane Homes” starting in the upper $200,000 range. According to Max Power’s president, Thomas Bennington, “The structure is built to carry up to 173 people at over 600 mph and in temperatures of -70 degrees F. It cost millions of dollars to build. We are offering it finished and delivered at prices that compare to conventional homes.” Bikini model not included.
Unlike other homes, buildings or structures made from aircraft parts, Max Power uses virtually the entire structure of a Boeing 727 jet. When mounted on a sturdy concrete and metal support pole, the jet is free to swing into the wind like a weathervane. Needless to say, a minimum of one acre of clear land is required for the installation.
There’s just so much one can do with an entire jetliner, but when it comes to the accessories and accoutrements, well, the sky’s the limit. Take these snazzy refurbished airline trolley carts by German designer Stephan Boltz. With the Bordbar collection, Boltz retains useful features of the carts including locking wheels and doors that open 270-degrees, then adds style with the buyer’s choice of panel treatments.
Airplane seats, both military and commercial, are also a favored choice for recyclers. Original seats are built to rigid specifications and among other things, use fire-resistant materials in their construction.Moto-Art offers a number of recycled, refurbished and re-worked airplane seats to the public including ejection seats from F-4 Phantom fighters (right) and B-52 Stratofortress bombers (left). Just the thing to get you through – or out of – that deathly boring budget meeting!
Of course, you’ll want to stick around if said meeting is held around MotoArt’s spectacular DC-4 Conference Table. The table is mounted on dual-aluminum I-beam legs and displays red LED lighting along its polished aluminum leading edge. Coasters are highly recommended.
The above desk is built similarly to the conference table but is smaller, perfectly sized for the office desk pilot. Some may consider it pricey at $12,000 but how many execs can say they spend the better part of their work day behind the wing of a Lockheed C-130 military transport plane?
Back home, the suggestively named Mile High Bed – possibly used because Boeing had dibs on “Dreamliner” – is crafted from a pair of DC-9 rear stabilizers that act as side rails with a C-130 cargo jet’s wing flap section for a headboard.
A night-time view of the Mile High Bed shows the built-in red LED lighting to best advantage. Please return your flight attendant to the upright position.
Those seeking to add an atmosphere of power to their room might consider a glass-topped table made from aircraft engine components. The coffee table above left is made from a cluster of polished chrome F4 Phantom fighter jet afterburner cans while the table to its right is centered by a polished chrome engine nacelle.
Jet engines and their housings are even more plentiful than entire airliners, so it makes sense that they would take on new lives in different incarnations. Take the Jet Engine Reception Desk above. Polished to a metallic gleam on the outside and outfitted with storage drawers on the inside, the 100-inch wide cowling once saw service attached to a 747 jumbo jet but now acts as the ultimate power desk. MotoArt also stocks a slightly smaller desk fashioned from a DC-6 engine.
Seatbelts are another aircraft component that are available in quantity and were built to a high standard. All The King’s Men of Melbourne, Australia, have recycled airliner seatbelts into stylish laptop bag straps. A little spit & polish (well, less the spit hopefully) is all that’s needed to give these veteran lifesavers a new life on the ground.
The DIY recycler-cum-artist can find aircraft graveyards to be a rewarding resource. Just ask Todd Lappin, who sourced the side window panel from a 747 to give his living room a somewhat “airy” look. Not all storage facilities sell to the public so be sure to ask!
Last but not least, if hanging a piece of an airplane on your wall just isn’t enough, then why not go whole hog and buy an aircraft – at least a chunk of one – to BE your living room! That’s what the sellerof a 19 square foot section of a former Boeing jet is hoping for. Included in situ are 4 “two fully-equipped airplane toilets, a kitchenette, storage lockers, and onboard in-flight video equipment.” If this isn’t the coolest home theater set-up going, then what is? Best of all, unlike real working jets you can choose your own movies, serve good food and even light up a cigar if you so desire. Flying the friendly skies was never this much fun!
Before cocoa can be made into chocolate, it goes through several steps of processing. Cocoa processing includes converting the beans into nibs, liquor, butter, cake and powder. Chocolate manufacturing includes the blending and refining of cocoa liquor, cocoa butter and various ingredients, such as milk and sugar.
Cocoa Processing
Inspection and Cleaning
First, the beans are inspected and thoroughly cleaned of any debris that may have fallen into the sacks, such as sticks, stones, or broken beans. Once the beans are cleaned, the processor has the option of roasting them before or after the shell is removed.
The inside of the cocoa bean is called the nib. Generally speaking, chocolate manufacturers prefer to roast the beans before shelling them, while cocoa processors favor the nib-roasting process.
Roasting, Shelling, and Grinding
Roasting the whole bean allows for more variety in the degree of roast and development of flavor, but requires beans of a uniform size, while nib roasting is more even and does not require uniform bean size. Roasting the nib directly also prevents migration of cocoa butter from the bean into the shell, which is discarded.
Once the beans have been shelled and roasted (or roasted and shelled, as the case may be), the nib is ground into a paste. The heat generated by this process causes the cocoa butter in the nib to melt, earning it the name “cocoa liquor.” The paste, further refined, may be sold as unsweetened baking chocolate.
All cocoa products start with cocoa liquor, although the liquor required in the manufacture of chocolate has a different texture from the liquor required to make cocoa butter, cake and powder. Chocolate liquor destined for processing into cocoa butter and cake is refined to a very small particle size, while chocolate liquor for chocolate production need not be as finely ground.
Cocoa Butter and Cocoa Cakes
The liquor is then fed into hydraulic presses that remove a certain percentage of the cocoa butter, leaving behind a cake containing from 6 to 24 percent of the cocoa’s initial butter. The extracted butter can be kept either in liquid or moulded form.
The cocoa cake is either broken into smaller pieces (kibbled) and sold into the generic cocoa cake market, or ground into a fine powder.
Dutch Process
The cocoa processor has the option of treating the nib or the liquor with an alkali solution (alkalizing), which reduces the acidity by increasing the normal pH factor from about 5.0 up to 8.0. This treatment is also known as "dutching", honoring the homeland of its inventor, C. J. Van Houten, who also developed the cocoa butter pressing method.
Alkalizing cocoa nib or cocoa liquor renders the powder darker; gives it a milder, but more chocolaty flavor, and allows it to stay in suspension longer in liquids such as milk.
Cocoa butter extracted from alkalized liquor is more pungent, with a less desirable odor and flavor, and must be deodorized and refined. It is then carefully blended with other cocoa butters, so that the final butter for sale has a consistent flavor, color and viscosity.
Chocolate Manufacturing
To manufacture chocolate, cocoa liquor is mixed with cocoa butter and sugar.
For milk chocolate, producers can add fresh, sweetened condensed or powdered milk, depending on the desired taste.
In the crumb or flake process, liquor is blended with sugar and pre-condensed milk, or sweetened condensed milk. It is then dried on heated rollers to produce the flavor more typical of European chocolate or mixed with slightly acidified milk to produce the flavor customary in the United States.
After the mixing process, the blend is further refined to reduce the size of the milk and sugar particles. The mixture is then placed into conches—large agitators that stir the mixture under heat. Normally, cocoa butter is added to the mix at this stage, although some manufacturers add it during the original blending process.
“Conching” further smoothes the mixture. As a rule, the longer chocolate is conched, the smoother it will be. The process may last for a few hours to three full days, or even longer.
After conching, the liquid chocolate may be shipped in tanks or tempered and poured into molds for sale in blocks to confectioners, dairies, or bakers. It may also be converted into proprietary bars for sale direct to the consumer market.
Inspection and Cleaning
Cocoa Butter and Cocoa Cakes